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Pilot training—ground training and flight training—is a big investment in both time and money. For ground training, you have to purchase specialized equipment and sometimes get private lessons from a flight instructor, while expenses for flight training include rental of an aircraft and the cost for the instructor. And that’s not to even mention the cost of taking written exams and flight tests from Transport Canada, obtaining a medical certificate from a civil aviation medical examiner (CAME) or renewing your certificate, to name a few related expenses.

Luckily, nizus has a number of ways for you to lighten the load on your wallet when it comes to ground training. 

When the conditions required for development are met, the areas of rising and descending air are called thunderstorm cells. A thunderstorm is usually composed of multiple thunderstorm cells that successively grow more powerful and to greater heights than the previous one as they develop.

The following picture shows multiple cells spread horizontally with the biggest one being at the centre.

We will look at the three different types of impact icing encountered in flight (all these three can be light, moderate or severe):

- Clear ice: This is the most hazardous type of icing. When the droplets impact the aircraft surface, they begin to freeze but are either too big or not supercooled enough to completely freeze on impact. The water starts to spread past its impact point and keeps freezing farther back. This results in a solid layer of transparent ice. It is the most dangerous type of icing because of how far it spreads as well as the weight it adds to the aircraft. Clear ice is mostly found in cumulus type of clouds, within unstable air and in temperatures between 0°C and -10°C.

1 - Definition and characteristics

Before listing the different types of fog, we will explain the difference between fog and mist. Mist is made of an aggregate of water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere and resembling fog to the naked eye. However, the water droplets are more spread out in mist than they are in fog. Because the droplets are farther apart, visibility is better in mist than it is in fog. As far as aviation weather reports are concerned, when the visibility is lower than 5/8 of a statute mile fog will be reported, and when it is equal to or greater than 5/8 of a statute mile mist will be reported.

There are different types of fog, however they all follow the same rules established previously in fog formation:

1 - Low clouds (surface to 6,500 feet)

a) Stratus (St): Generally grey cloud layer with a fairly uniform base resembling fog but not resting on the ground.

1 - Orographic lift

1 - Convection

1 - Radiation

a) Diurnal variation: During the day, solar radiation is stronger than terrestrial radiation, which heats up the earth's surface. At night, terrestrial radiation becomes stronger (when the sun is down, solar radiation ceases), therefore cooling the surface down.

b) Angle of the sun’s rays: As the earth revolves around the sun and its axis is tilted, solar radiation will reach earth at a different angle depending on the season. Depending on this angle, for a given surface, the solar radiation concentrated will be more or less significant. This will result in a more or less efficient heating of the surface. This is why summers are generally hotter and winters generally colder in the Northern Hemisphere (and the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere).

Transport Canada and NAV CANADA have made a number of resources available online for pilots. Some of these resources will be useful to you throughout your training (such as study and reference guides), while others will remain relevant throughout your entire career as a pilot (such as the Canadian Aviation Regulations and the Collaborative Flight Planning Services website). 

nizus is always looking for ways to support you better, so we’ve put together some of these references and useful links in a single article.

Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four distinct layers:

- Troposphere
- Stratosphere
- Mesosphere
- Thermosphere

Note: To identify each of the transition zones between these layers, the suffix "sphere" is simply replaced with "pause," to give:

- Tropopause
- Stratopause
- Mesopause
- Thermopause

Absolute ceiling: The aircraft is no longer able to gain altitude.

Service ceiling: The aircraft is unable to exceed a rate of climb of 100 feet per minute.

1 - Rate of climb

Is it true that the elevator control changes an aircraft’s altitude entirely on its own and the throttle control only changes the aircraft’s airspeed? Actually, no!

Try it out for yourself: With the aircraft in flight, pull back on the control column and see what happens. Depending on the aircraft configuration, you may see your airspeed decrease and your altitude increase (if you are in cruising flight, for example). But you might also witness the opposite and the aircraft might lose altitude (if you are in slow flight, for instance) and even stall.

The same is true for the throttle control: If you increase the power, the aircraft’s nose will likely lift up, and if you are at cruising speed, it will gain altitude without necessarily gaining airspeed. If you decrease the power, you might get the opposite result.

This is why there is an oft-repeated maxim in the aviation world: “Attitude + Power = Performance.”

All that can be said for certain is that the elevator control changes the aircraft’s pitch attitude and the throttle control changes the power. 

When performing a manoeuvre where you need to control both the power and the pitch, keep in mind that the controls are interchangeable and operated separately and must therefore be used in conjunction.

The Multi-Engine Class Rating allows its holder to fly multi-engine aeroplanes. Usually, flight training for this rating is done concurrently with the instrument flight rating training.

The Night Rating allows its holder to fly at night.

To be a pilot in Canada, you must be at least:

- 14 years old for the Student Pilot Permit
The Student Pilot Permit allows its holder to fly an aircraft in Canada under day VFR for the purpose of carrying out flight training under the supervision of a flight instructor. It is necessary for a student pilot to be authorized to perform the solo flights required for the issuance of the PPL.

- 16 years old for the Recreational Pilot Permit
The Recreational Pilot Permit allows its holder to operate single pilot, non-high-performance aeroplanes under day visual meteorological conditions (VMC) with no more than one passenger carried on board.

- 17 years old for the Private Pilot Licence (PPL)
The PPL is the Private Pilot Licence. Its holder may operate non-high-performance aircraft under visual meteorological conditions (VMC), without receiving remuneration.

- 17 years old for the Type Rating for Two Crew Aeroplane or Cruise Relief Pilot (IATRA)
The Type Rating for Two Crew Aeroplane or Cruise Relief Pilot allows its holder to act as a co-pilot in an aircraft requiring a crew of at least two pilots or as a cruise relief pilot.

- 18 years old for the Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL)
The CPL is the Commercial Pilot Licence. Its holder may fly for hire or reward while employed by the holder of an Air Operator Certificate.

- 18 years old for the Flight Instructor Rating
The Instructor Rating allows its holder to conduct dual flight instruction.

- 21 years old for the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL)
The Airline Transport Pilot Licence allows its holder to act as pilot-in-command or co-pilot of an aeroplane for which a minimum flight crew of two pilots is required while engaged in providing a commercial air service.

Before you can obtain a licence or certification, an exam is necessary to ensure you have sufficient knowledge. Your choice of exam will depend on the type of licence, permit or rating you are seeking.

Exams are available by appointment at a Transport Canada service centre, or by an authorized examination invigilator (AEI).

According to CAR 404.10, no person may exercise or attempt to exercise the privileges of a permit, licence or rating unless the person holds a valid medical certificate of a category that is appropriate for that permit, licence or rating.

Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) has seven classifications. The application of any classification to an airspace structure determines the operating rules, the level of ATC service provided within the structure and, in some instances, communications and equipment requirements.

The airspace structure defines the physical dimensions of the elements into which the airspace is divided, such as control zones (CZ), terminal control areas (TCA), control area extensions (CAE) and airways.

Before you can obtain a licence or certification, an exam is necessary to ensure you have sufficient knowledge. Your choice of exam will depend on the type of licence, permit or rating you are seeking.

For many young professional pilots, the Flight Instructor Rating is the ideal solution for accumulating flight hours and experience before applying to an airline. Throughout their career, flight instructors will face numerous situations that will allow them to gain confidence, expertise and other skills sought after by airlines.

Most of the time, this rating marks the end of pilot training within a flight training unit, and it is usually within this unit that the new instructor transitions from student to teacher. The Flight Instructor Rating is therefore a stepping stone between flight school and the professional world. For some pilots, instruction becomes a calling: they will not want to leave it, or they will return to it later.

Flying an aircraft is a dream for many. Whether you want to go flying with friends or pursue a flying career, there are a multitude of permits, licences and qualifications that you can acquire through your training.

A "normally aspirated" or "naturally aspirated" engine is an engine designed to work at sea level under normal atmospheric pressure. Of course, the entire point of an aircraft is to lift off from solid ground into a setting with lower atmospheric pressure. As the aircraft climbs and the air gets less and less dense, the engine provides less and less power.

To provide sufficient power at higher altitudes, engines can be equipped with a turbocharger or a supercharger to increase the density of air entering the engine.

Over the years, carburetors have gradually given way to fuel injectors. This is primarily because carburetors do not distribute the fuel/air mixture equally between cylinders. Fuel injection systems are far more precise. They measure and distribute the correct amount of fuel just before each intake valve or directly into each cylinder, as the red circle shows in the picture below.

There are two main types of piston engines: four‑stroke engines and two‑stroke. They are named for the number of strokes the piston makes in one cycle.

1 - Four‑stroke cycle

Most piston engines today have a four­‑stroke cycle. That means that, in one cycle, the piston moves up and down in the cylinder four times, and the crankshaft completes two complete revolutions.

Every time the piston moves between the top dead centre (TDC) and the bottom dead centre (BDC), that’s one “stroke.” The four strokes in this kind of cycle are: 

a) Induction stroke: The intake valve is open, and the exhaust valve is closed. The piston moves down from the top of the cylinder, creating negative pressure and pulling the fuel/air mixture into the combustion chamber.

Thunderstorms can contain nearly every weather hazard known to aviation. These include tornadoes, turbulence, squall lines, microbursts, heavy updrafts and downdrafts, icing, hail, lightning, precipitation static, heavy precipitation, low ceilings and low visibility.

A person who fails an exam or a section of a sectionalized exam required for the issuance of a flight crew permit, licence, rating or foreign licence validation certificate is ineligible to rewrite the exam or the failed section for a period of

- In the case of a first failure: 14 days

- In the case of a second failure: 30 days

- In the case of a third or subsequent failure: 30 days plus an additional 30 days for each failure in excess of two failures, up to a maximum of 180 days

Note: A person who fails the PSTAR exam is eligible to rewrite the exam at any time after receiving notice of the failure and reviewing their weak knowledge areas.

A letter of recommendation is a document attesting (for TC personnel) that the person wishing to take a TC written exam has taken a ground school course on theory and has acquired sufficient knowledge to take the written exam.

The validity period for a letter of recommendation for a written exam is 60 days.

This letter can be used only once. If you fail the exam (completely or partially), you must get a new letter after reviewing the knowledge that was lacking.

A letter of recommendation is required for:

- The Pilot Permit – Gyroplane

- The Private Pilot Licence

- The Commercial Pilot Licence

- The Class 4 Instructor Rating

Note: The letter of recommendation for a flight test is only valid for a period of 30 days.

- A pencil for rough work
- An electronic calculator
- Navigation tools (ruler/scale, flight computer)
- A letter of recommendation (if necessary)
- Photo ID
- Proof of medical fitness
- Proof of training/experience
- The exam fee

The following electronic computers are accepted for all flight crew written exams requiring numerical computations:

- Jeppesen/Sanderson PROSTAR
- Jeppesen/Sanderson AVSTAR
- Jeppesen TECHSTAR
- Jeppesen TECHSTAR PRO
- ASA CX-1a PATHFINDER
- ASA CX-2 PATHFINDER
- ASA CX-3 Flight Computer
- CESSNA SKY/COMP
- NAV-GEM
- SPORTY’S E6B

Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) has seven classifications. The application of any classification to an airspace structure determines the operating rules, the level of ATC service provided within the structure and, in some instances, communications and equipment requirements.

The airspace structure defines the physical dimensions of the elements into which the airspace is divided, such as control zones (CZ), terminal control areas (TCA), control area extensions (CAE) and airways.

Class B airspace is designated where an operational need exists to provide ATC service to IFR aircraft and to control VFR flights.

Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. All aircraft are subject to ATC clearances and instructions. ATC separation is provided between all aircraft. VFR flights are conducted as controlled VFR flights.

Class B airspace dimensions: All low-level controlled airspace above 12,500 feet ASL or at and above the minimum en route altitude (MEA), whichever is higher, up to but not including 18,000 feet ASL, is Class B airspace.

Control zones and associated terminal control areas may also be classified as Class B airspace, starting from the ground.

Notes

1. No person shall operate an aircraft in Class B controlled airspace in VFR flight unless:

(a) the aircraft is equipped with:
   (i) radio communication equipment capable of two-way communication with the appropriate ATS facility;
   (ii) radio navigation equipment capable of using navigation facilities to enable the aircraft to be operated in accordance with the flight plan; and
   (iii) a transponder and automatic pressure-altitude reporting equipment, including ADS-B.

(b) a continuous listening watch is maintained by a flight crew member on a radio frequency assigned by ATC;

(c) except as otherwise authorized by ATC, when the aircraft is over a reporting point a position report is transmitted to the appropriate unit or, when so directed by ATC, to an FSS; and

(d) the aircraft is operated in VMC at all times.

2. A person operating an aircraft on a VFR flight in Class B airspace shall operate the aircraft in VMC at all times. When it becomes evident that flight in VMC will not be possible at the altitude or along the route specified, the pilot shall:

(a) request an ATC clearance that will enable the aircraft to be operated in VMC to the filed destination, or to another aerodrome;

(b) where the person is the holder of a valid instrument rating, request an IFR clearance for flight under the instrument flight rules; or

(c) where the Class B airspace is a control zone, request an authorization for special VFR flight.

3. A person operating an aircraft in Class B controlled airspace in VFR flight who is unable to comply with the requirements of the preceding paragraphs shall ensure that:

(a) the aircraft is operated in VMC at all times;

(b) the aircraft leaves Class B controlled airspace:
   (i) by the safest and shortest route, either exiting horizontally or descending, or
   (ii) when that airspace is a control zone, by landing at the aerodrome on which the control zone is based; and

(c) an ATC unit is informed as soon as possible of the actions taken pursuant to paragraph (b).

Class C airspace is a controlled airspace within which both IFR and VFR flights are permitted, but VFR flights require a clearance from ATC to enter. ATC separation is provided between all aircraft operating under IFR. Conflict resolution is provided, when necessary, to resolve possible conflicts between VFR and IFR aircraft. All aircraft will be provided with traffic information. Conflict resolution between VFR aircraft can be provided upon request, after VFR aircraft are provided with traffic information. Runway separation is provided between all aircraft.

Traffic information is issued to advise pilots of known or observed air traffic which may be in proximity to their aircraft’s position or intended route of flight warranting their attention. Conflict resolution is defined as the resolution of potential conflicts between IFR and VFR aircraft and between VFR aircraft that are identified and in communication with ATC.

Airspace classified as Class C becomes Class E airspace when the appropriate ATC unit is not in operation.

Class C airspace dimensions: Terminal control areas and associated control zones may be classified as Class C airspace and can extend from the ground up to 12,500 feet above sea level (ASL). These areas usually have a 10 NM radius.

The actual Class C airspace dimensions will vary from one airport to another for various operational reasons. It is therefore of utmost importance to consult the VTA or VNC chart for a given airport before flying into it. 

A person operating an aircraft in VFR flight in Class C airspace shall ensure that:

(a) the aircraft is equipped with:
   (i) radio communication equipment capable of two-way communication with the appropriate ATC unit, and
   (ii) a transponder and automatic pressure-altitude reporting equipment, and

(b) a continuous listening watch is maintained by a flight crew member on a radio frequency assigned by ATC.

A person wishing to operate an aircraft that is not equipped with functioning communication and transponder equipment for VFR flight in Class C airspace may, during daylight hours and in VMC, enter Class C airspace provided that permission to enter and operate within the airspace is obtained from ATC prior to the operation being conducted.

Class D airspace is a controlled airspace within which both IFR and VFR flights are permitted, but VFR flights must establish two-way communication with the appropriate ATC unit prior to entering the airspace. ATC separation is provided only between IFR aircraft. Aircraft will be provided with traffic information. Equipment and workload permitting, conflict resolution will be provided between VFR and IFR aircraft, and upon request between VFR aircraft. Runway separation is provided between all aircraft.

Airspace classified as Class D becomes Class E airspace when the appropriate ATC unit is not in operation.

Class D airspace dimensions: A terminal control area and associated control zone could be classified as Class D airspace. Class D airspace typically extends from the ground up to 3,000 feet above aerodrome elevation (AAE) over a radius of 5 NM (and 7 NM at larger airports).

The actual Class D airspace dimensions will vary from one airport to another for various operational reasons. It is therefore of utmost importance to consult the VTA or VNC chart for a given airport before flying into it.

A person operating an aircraft in VFR flight in Class D airspace shall ensure that:

(a) the aircraft is equipped with:
   (i) radio communication equipment capable of two-way communication with the appropriate ATC unit, and
   (ii) where the Class D airspace is specified as transponder airspace, a transponder and automatic pressurealtitude reporting equipment; and

(b) a continuous listening watch is maintained by a flight crew member on a radio frequency assigned by ATC.

A person operating an aircraft in VFR flight that is not equipped with the required radio communication equipment may, during daylight hours in VMC, enter Class D airspace, provided that permission to enter is obtained from the appropriate ATC unit prior to operating within the airspace.

Class E airspace is designated where an operational need exists for controlled airspace but does not meet the requirements for Class A, B, C, or D.

Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. ATC separation is provided only between aircraft operating under IFR. VFR aircraft do not require permission to enter Class E airspace and, except for mandatory frequency areas, are not required to establish communication with an ATS unit prior to entering. Workload and equipment permitting, traffic information may be provided, upon request, to VFR aircraft. When requesting traffic information from ATC, pilots should be aware that air traffic controllers providing services in Class E airspace are responsible for larger volumes of airspace than those providing services in Class C or D airspace. As a result, there is a higher potential that workload and equipment limitations could affect the provision of traffic information, including potentially discontinuing this service without notification. A person operating an aircraft in VFR flight in Class E airspace remains responsible for maintaining a vigilant watch for, and avoiding, other traffic.

Aircraft are required to be equipped with a transponder and automatic pressure-altitude equipment to operate in Class E airspace that is specified as transponder airspace.

Class E airspace dimensions: Low-level airways, control area extensions, transition areas or control zones established without an operating control tower may be classified as Class E airspace. Its dimensions are the same as the airspace class it is replacing. High-level controlled airspace above FL 600 is also Class E airspace.

Class F airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which activities must be confined because of their nature and within which limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities.

Class F airspace may be restricted airspace, advisory airspace, military operations areas or danger areas and can be controlled airspace, uncontrolled airspace or a combination of both. An advisory area, for example, may have the floor in uncontrolled airspace and the ceiling in controlled airspace. The significance, in this instance, is that the weather minima would be different in the controlled and uncontrolled portions.

Unless otherwise specified, the rules for the surrounding airspace apply in areas of Class F airspace, regardless of whether these areas are active or inactive.

Class F airspace dimensions: Each Class F airspace possesses its own defined dimensions. No standard exists.

Class F airspace is designated in the DAH (TP 1820) and published on the appropriate aeronautical charts.

Class G airspace is airspace that has not been designated Class A, B, C, D, E or F, and within which ATC has neither the authority nor the responsibility to exercise control over air traffic.

However, ATS units do provide flight information and alerting services. The alerting service will automatically alert SAR authorities once an aircraft becomes overdue, which is normally determined from data contained in the flight plan or flight itinerary.

To summarize, all uncontrolled domestic airspace forms Class G airspace.

Low-level air routes are contained within Class G airspace. They are basically the same as a low-level airway, except that they extend upwards from the surface of the earth and are not controlled, and ATC separation is not provided to IFR or VFR aircraft. The lateral dimensions are identical to those of a low-level airway.

The Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) can be found directly on Transport Canada’s website. They are divided into 10 parts, one for each broad topic.

The journey log must be on board unless no landing with shut down is planned at any location other than the point of departure.

VFR minimum equipment:

- Airspeed indicator

- Magnetic compass

- Tachometer(s)

- Oil pressure indicator(s)

- Oil or coolant temperature indicator(s)

- Manifold pressure gauge(s) (variable-pitch propeller, helicopter, supercharger, turbocharger)

- Fuel quantity gauge and retractable landing gear position indicator

For day VFR, add:

- Altimeter (sensitive altimeter in controlled airspace)

- In Class B, C or D, MF area, or ADIZ: radio

- In Class B: radio navigation equipment

Or, for VFR OTT, add:

- Sensitive altimeter

- De-icing device for each airspeed indicator

- Gyroscopic direction indicator or stabilized magnetic direction indicator

- Attitude indicator

- Turn and slip indicator or turn coordinator

- In the Northern Domestic Airspace: directional device that is not dependent on a magnetic source

- Radio

- Radio navigation equipment

Or, for night VFR, add:

- Sensitive altimeter

- In Class B, C or D, MF area, or ADIZ: radio

- In Class B: radio navigation equipment

- A turn and slip indicator or turn coordinator

- Source of electrical energy

- Spare fuses (at least 50%)

- Where an aerodrome is not visible: stabilized magnetic direction indicator or gyroscopic direction indicator

- In the Northern Domestic Airspace: directional device that is not dependent on a magnetic source

- Illumination for the instruments

- If passengers are onboard: landing light

- Position and anti-collision lights

- For aircraft operated under CARs 604 or CARs 702 to 705: attitude indicator, vertical speed indicator, de-icing device for each airspeed indicator, OAT gauge

The Law Says:

Power-driven Aircraft — Day VFR

605.14 No person shall conduct a take-off in a power-driven aircraft for the purpose of day VFR flight unless it is equipped with

(a) where the aircraft is operated in uncontrolled airspace, an altimeter

(b) where the aircraft is operated in controlled airspace, a sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure;

(c) an airspeed indicator;

(d) a magnetic compass or a magnetic direction indicator that operates independently of the aircraft electrical generating system;

(e) a tachometer for each engine and for each propeller or rotor that has limiting speeds established by the manufacturer;

(f) an oil pressure indicator for each engine employing an oil pressure system;

(g) a coolant temperature indicator for each liquid-cooled engine;

(h) an oil temperature indicator for each air-cooled engine having a separate oil system;

(i) a manifold pressure gauge for each
(i) reciprocating engine equipped with a variable-pitch propeller,
(ii) reciprocating engine used to power a helicopter,
(iii) supercharged engine, and
(iv) turbocharged engine;

(j) a means for the flight crew, when seated at the flight controls to determine
(i) the fuel quantity in each main fuel tank, and
(ii) if the aircraft employs retractable landing gear, the position of the landing gear;

(k) subject to subsections 601.08(2) and 601.09(2), a radiocommunication system adequate to permit two-way communication on the appropriate frequency when the aircraft is operated within
(i) Class B, Class C or Class D airspace,
(ii) an MF area, unless the aircraft is operated pursuant to subsection 602.97(3), or
(iii) the ADIZ;

(l) where the aircraft is operated under Subpart 4 of this Part, or under Subpart 3, 4 or 5 of Part VII, radiocommunication equipment adequate to permit two-way communication on the appropriate frequency;

(m) where the aircraft is operated in Class B airspace, radio navigation equipment that will enable it to be operated in accordance with a flight plan; and

(n) where the aircraft is operated under Subpart 4 of this Part or under Subpart 5 of Part VII, radio navigation equipment that is adequate to receive radio signals from a transmitting facility.

Power-driven Aircraft — VFR OTT

605.15 (1) No person shall conduct a take-off in a power-driven aircraft for the purpose of VFR OTT flight unless it is equipped with

(a) the equipment referred to in paragraphs 605.14(c) to (j);

(b) a sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure;

(c) a means of preventing malfunction caused by icing for each airspeed indicating system;

(d) a gyroscopic direction indicator or a stabilized magnetic direction indicator;

(e) an attitude indicator;

(f) subject to subsection (2), a turn and slip indicator or turn coordinator;

(g) where the aircraft is to be operated within the Northern Domestic Airspace, a means of establishing direction that is not dependent on a magnetic source;

(h) radiocommunication equipment adequate to permit two-way communication on the appropriate frequency; and

(i) radio navigation equipment adequate to permit the aircraft to be navigated safely.

(2) Where the aircraft is equipped with a third attitude indicator that is usable through flight attitudes of 360° of pitch and roll for an aeroplane, or ± 80° of pitch and ± 120° of roll for a helicopter, the aircraft may be equipped with a slip-skid indicator in lieu of a turn and slip indicator or a turn coordinator.

Power-driven Aircraft — Night VFR

605.16 (1) No person shall conduct a take-off in a power-driven aircraft for the purpose of night VFR flight, unless it is equipped with

(a) the equipment referred to in paragraphs 605.14(c) to (n);

(b) a sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure;

(c) subject to subsection (2), a turn and slip indicator or turn coordinator;

(d) an adequate source of electrical energy for all of the electrical and radio equipment;

(e) in respect of every set of fuses of a particular rating that is installed on the aircraft and accessible to the pilot-in-command during flight, a number of spare fuses that is equal to at least 50 per cent of the total number of installed fuses of that rating;

(f) where the aircraft is operated so that an aerodrome is not visible from the aircraft, a stabilized magnetic direction indicator or a gyroscopic direction indicator;

(g) where the aircraft is to be operated within the Northern Domestic Airspace, a means of establishing direction that is not dependent on a magnetic source;

(h) where the aircraft is an airship operated within controlled airspace, radar reflectors attached in such a manner as to be capable of a 360-degree reflection;

(i) a means of illumination for all of the instruments used to operate the aircraft;

(j) when carrying passengers, a landing light; and

(k) position and anti-collision lights that conform to the Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standards.

(2) Where the aircraft is equipped with a third attitude indicator that is usable through flight attitudes of 360° of pitch and roll for an aeroplane, or ± 80° of pitch and ± 120° of roll for a helicopter, the aircraft may be equipped with a slip-skid indicator in lieu of a turn and slip indicator or a turn coordinator.

(3) No person shall operate an aircraft that is equipped with any light that may be mistaken for, or downgrade the conspicuity of, a light in the navigation light system, unless the aircraft is being operated for the purpose of aerial advertising.

(4) In addition to the equipment requirements specified in subsection (1), no person shall operate an aircraft in night VFR flight under Subpart 4 of this Part or Subparts 2 to 5 of Part VII, unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) an attitude indicator;

(b) a vertical speed indicator;

(c) a means of preventing malfunction caused by icing for each airspeed indicating system; and

(d) an outside air temperature gauge.

^{© His Majesty the King in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of Transport (2024). This information has been reproduced with the permission of Transport Canada.}

The required documents on board an aircraft in Canada are:

- Flight authority (certificate of airworthiness or flight permit)
This authority remains valid as long as all maintenance inspections are performed and all airworthiness directives are complied with.

-  Certificate of registration
This certificate is valid for the life of the aircraft. If the aircraft is sold, Transport Canada must be immediately informed before ownership of the aircraft can be transferred. If the aircraft has an interim certificate of registration, that certificate is valid for 90 days. If the owner of the aircraft changes address, Transport Canada must be informed within seven days.

- Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) (or equivalent document)
The AFM must be complete and include any amendments. 

-  Current aircraft weight and balance data
This refers to the weight and balance of the aircraft when it is empty with all equipment included. Aircraft under 12,500 pounds only need to be weighed when there is an equipment change, while aircraft over 12,500 pounds must be weighed every five years or when there is an equipment change.

-  Aircraft journey log
This is a log of all the aircraft’s flights and the maintenance performed on the aircraft. It must remain on board the aircraft at all times, unless there are no plans to land and turn off the engine at any location other than the point of departure.

-  Proof of liability insurance
The insurance policy must be in force at the time of the flight.

-  Crew licences
You must have the licence and ratings required for the type of flight planned and the type of aircraft that will be used. Your licences will not be valid unless you also hold a valid medical certificate.

-  Radio restricted operator certificate (ROC-A)
The certificate is issued for life and no revalidation is required. It is required by operators of radiotelephone equipment on board aircraft and at aeronautical land (fixed and mobile) radio stations using aeronautical mobile frequencies.

You’re not allowed to drive a car without seatbelts. Just like your car, an aircraft must meet certain requirements (set by TC) in order to be operated. An aircraft’s flight authority is a document attesting that it meets these requirements, in part or in full. Most of the time, the flight authority must be on board the aircraft.

There are numerous flight authorities, depending on what the aircraft is used for, the airworthiness criteria it meets, and so on.

There are four categories of medical certificates. You must have the appropriate medical certificate for your permit, licence or rating.

- Category 1 medical certificate:

• Commercial Pilot Licence - Aeroplane or Helicopter
• Multi-Crew Pilot Licence - Aeroplane
• Airline Transport Pilot Licence - Aeroplane or Helicopter
• Flight Engineer Licence

- Category 2 medical certificate:

• Air Traffic Controller Licence

- Category 3 medical certificate:

• Student Pilot Permit - Helicopter / Gyroplane or Balloon
• Pilot Permit - Gyroplane
• Private Pilot Licence - Aeroplane or Helicopter
• Pilot Licence - Balloon
• Flight Instructor Rating - Glider / Ultra-Light Aeroplane

- Category 4 medical certificate:

• Student Pilot Permit - Aeroplane / Glider
• Pilot Permit - Recreational
• Student Pilot or Pilot Permit - Ultra-Light Aeroplane
• Pilot Licence - Glider

- Medical certificate validity period for a Student Pilot Permit:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 60 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Recreational Pilot Permit:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 24 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Private Pilot Licence (PPL):

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 24 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL):

• Under 40 years of age: 12 months
• 40 years of age or older, and conducting a single-pilot operation with passengers on board: 6 months
• 60 years of age or older: 6 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Multi-Crew Pilot Licence — Aeroplane:

• Under 40 years of age: 12 months
• 40 years of age or older, and conducting a single-pilot operation with passengers on board: 6 months
• 60 years of age or older: 6 months

- Medical certificate validity period for an Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL):

• Under 40 years of age: 12 months
• 40 years of age or older, and conducting a single-pilot operation with passengers on board: 6 months
• 60 years of age or older: 6 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Pilot Licence - Glider:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 60 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Pilot Licence - Balloon:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 24 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Pilot Permit - Gyroplane:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 24 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Pilot Permit - Ultra-Light Aeroplane:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 60 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Flight Instructor Rating - Glider:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 60 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Flight Instructor Rating - Ultra-Light Aeroplane:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 60 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Passenger-Carrying Rating - Ultra-Light Aeroplane:

• Under 40 years of age: 60 months
• 40 years of age or older: 24 months

- Medical certificate validity period for a Flight Engineer Licence:

• Under 40 years of age: 12 months
• 40 years of age or older: 12 months

- Medical certificate validity period for an Air Traffic Controller Licence:

• Under 40 years of age: 24 months
• 40 years of age or older: 12 months

- Class 4
The Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating shall be issued valid to the first day of the thirteenth month following the month in which the instructor flight test was conducted.

- Class 3
The initial Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating shall be issued valid to the first day of the twenty-fifth month following the month in which the most recent instructor flight test was conducted.

- Class 2
The class 2 Flight Instructor Rating shall be issued valid to the first day of the thirty-seventh month following the month in which the instructor flight test was conducted.

- Class 1
The Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating shall be issued valid to the first day of the forty-ninth month following the month in which the instructor flight test was conducted.

- Aerobatic — Class 2
The class 2 Aeroplane Aerobatic Flight Instructor Rating shall be issued valid to the first day of the thirty-seventh month following the month in which the instructor flight test was conducted.

- Aerobatic — Class 1
The Class 1 Aeroplane Aerobatic Instructor Flight Rating shall be issued valid to the first day of the forty-ninth month following the month in which the instructor flight test is conducted.


How to renew a Flight Instructor Rating

(1) An applicant for renewal of a Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane or Helicopter shall have the rating provided that the applicant:

(a) successfully completes a flight test for the appropriate flight instructor rating;

(b) successfully completes a flight instructor refresher course, in which case the rating shall be renewed from the date of the last day of the course. When the last day of the course is within 90 days of the valid to date of the existing rating, the renewed rating shall be valid to the same date as if the refresher course was completed during the month prior to the valid to date of the existing rating; or

(c) in the previous 24 months, has acquired at least 300 hours of flight instructor experience and had, in this period, at least 80% of candidates recommended for the applicable flight tests pass on the first attempt. The renewal shall be based on no fewer than 5 flight tests.

(d) When an instructor flight test for the renewal or upgrade of a flight instructor rating is conducted within the 90 day period prior to the valid to date of the existing rating, the renewed rating shall be valid to the same date as if the flight test was done during the month prior to the valid to date of the existing rating.

(2) Where the applicant has renewed the instructor rating twice consecutively by means other than a flight test, the next renewal shall be through successful completion of a flight test for the appropriate flight instructor rating.

(3)

(a) Where a flight instructor rating is or has been valid within the preceding 12 months, an applicant for renewal shall successfully complete a flight test for the appropriate flight instructor rating.

(b) Where a flight instructor rating has been invalid for more than 12 months but less than 24 months, an applicant for renewal shall:
   (i) provide a recommendation from the holder of a Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating in the appropriate category indicating that the applicant is considered competent to undertake an instructor flight test; and
   (ii) successfully complete a flight test for the appropriate flight instructor rating.

(c) Where a flight instructor rating has been invalid for more than 24 months, an applicant for renewal shall:
   (i) provide a recommendation from the holder of a Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating in the appropriate category indicating that the applicant is considered competent to complete the written examination(s) and undertake an instructor flight test;
   (ii) successfully complete the examination requirement set forth under Knowledge for the appropriate flight instructor rating; and
   (iii) successfully complete a flight test for the appropriate flight instructor rating.

^{© His Majesty the King in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of Transport (2024). This information has been reproduced with the permission of Transport Canada.}

In order to keep your permits, licences and ratings valid, you need to have made at least one flight within the last five years. If you do not fulfill this requirement, you must have completed a flight review with a flight instructor and passed the PSTAR examination again within the last 12 months.

In order to keep your permits and licences valid, you must have completed a recurrent training program within the last 24 months, and if you have a passenger with you, you must have made at least five takeoffs and landings (at night if the flight takes place at night) within the last 6 months.

An accident is when one of the following occurs:

- A person is killed or sustains a serious injury because of an aircraft

- The aircraft sustains structural failure

- The aircraft is missing or inaccessible

An incident (for aircraft having a maximum certificated takeoff weight greater than 2,250 kg, or being operated under CAR 700) is when one of the following occurs:

- Engine failure or shutdown

- Gearbox malfunction

- Smoke or fire on board

- Difficulties in controlling the aircraft

- Aircraft fails to remain within the landing or takeoff area, lands with the landing gear retracted or drags any part

- A crew member sustains a physical incapacitation which poses a safety threat

- Depressurization requiring an emergency descent

- Fuel shortage

- Refuelling with incorrect type or contaminated fuel

- Collision or risk of collision, or loss of separation

- Emergency declared

- A slung load is released unintentionally or as a precautionary or emergency measure

- Release of dangerous goods

The purpose of an aviation safety investigation into an aircraft accident or incident is to prevent a recurrence; it is not to determine or assign blame or liability. The TSB, established under the Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act (CTAISB Act), is responsible for investigating all aviation occurrences in Canada involving civil aircraft registered both in Canada and abroad. A team of investigators is on 24-hr standby. The following text is mainly taken from the recently updated Transportation Safety Board of Canada Regulations. The complete text of both the CTAISB Act as well as the updated Regulations can be found on the Department of Justice Web site.

Under the CTAISB Act, aviation occurrence means any accident or incident associated with the operation of an aircraft, and any situation or condition that the Board has reasonable grounds to believe could, if left unattended, induce an accident or incident.

The following definitions are taken from the Transportation Safety Board of Canada Regulations.

- Collision: means an impact, other than an impact associated with normal operating circumstances, between aircraft or between an aircraft and another object or terrain.

- Dangerous goods: has the same meaning as in section 2 of the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act, 1992.

- Operation: means the activities for which an aircraft is used from the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until they disembark.

- Risk of collision: means a situation in which an aircraft comes so close to being involved in a collision that a threat to the safety of any person, property or the environment exists.

- Serious injury means:

• A fracture of any bone, except simple fractures of fingers, toes or the nose
• Lacerations that cause severe hemorrhage or nerve, muscle or tendon damage
• An injury to an internal organ
• Second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface
• A verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation
• An injury that is likely to require hospitalization.

The owner, operator, pilot-in-command, any crew member of the aircraft and any person providing air traffic services that have direct knowledge of an occurrence must report the following aviation occurrences to the Board if they result directly from the operation of an aircraft.

The PSTAR is a Transport Canada written exam on aviation regulations and air traffic control procedures. It is required to obtain the Student Pilot Permit. This exam is called the Student Pilot Permit or Private Pilot Licence for Foreign and Military Applicants, Aviation Regulation Examination, the computer code for which is PSTAR.

- Minimum age: 14 years of age

- Study and reference guide: TP 11919

- Required knowledge:

• The Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)
• Air traffic control clearances and instructions
• Air traffic control procedures as they apply to the control of VFR traffic at controlled airports
• Air traffic procedures at uncontrolled airports and aerodromes
• Special VFR regulations
• Aeronautical Information Circulars
• NOTAMs

- Type of exam: 50 multiple-choice questions

- Pass mark: 90%

The Student Pilot Permit allows its holder to fly an aircraft in Canada under day VFR for the purpose of carrying out flight training under the supervision of a flight instructor.

- Minimum age: 14 years of age

- TC exam: PSTAR

- Medical Assessment Letter or category of medical certificate required: 1 or 3

- Study and reference guide: TP 11919

- Required knowledge:

• The Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)
• Air traffic control clearances and instructions
• Air traffic control procedures as they apply to the control of VFR traffic at controlled airports
• Air traffic procedures at uncontrolled airports and aerodromes
• Special VFR regulations
• Aeronautical Information Circulars
• NOTAMs

- Type of exam: 50 multiple-choice questions

- Time allotted: 1 hour 30 minutes

- Pass mark: 90%

The holder of a Student Pilot Permit may fly an aircraft in Canada under day VFR for the purpose of carrying out flight training under the supervision of a flight instructor.

There is no minimum number of flight hours required to obtain a Student Pilot Permit. However, the instructor is responsible for ensuring that the applicant has reached a satisfactory standard of experience and skill to complete solo flight before authorizing the first solo flight.

ROC-A is the Restricted Operator Certificate (Aeronautical Qualification). It is required in order to use a radio aboard aircraft and at aeronautical land radio stations. It is issued for life and no recertification is required.

The Recreational Pilot Permit allows its holder to operate single-pilot, non-high-performance aeroplanes under day visual meteorological conditions (VMC) with no more than one passenger carried on board.

The holder of a Recreational Pilot Permit may operate single-pilot, non-high-performance aeroplanes under day visual meteorological conditions (VMC) with no more than one passenger carried on board.

The flight time requirement for a holder to obtain a Recreational Pilot Permit - Aeroplane is 25 hours of flight training under the direction and supervision of an instructor, including:

- 15 hours of dual flight time, including a minimum of 2 hours cross-country

- 5 hours of solo flight time

The PPL-A is the Private Pilot Licence - Aeroplane. Its holder may operate non-high-performance aeroplanes under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) as long as they do not receive compensation.

The holder of a Private Pilot Licence may operate non-high-performance aeroplanes under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) as long as they do not receive compensation.

The flight time requirement to obtain a Private Pilot Licence - Aeroplane (PPL-A) is 45 hours of flight training in aeroplanes under the direction and supervision of an instructor, including:

- 17 hours of dual flight time, including a minimum of 3 hours of cross-country flight time and 5 hours of instrument time

- 12 hours of solo flight time, including 5 hours of cross-country flight time with a flight of at least 150 NM, which must include 2 full-stop landings at points other than the point of departure

The PPL-H is the Private Pilot Licence - Helicopter. Its holder may fly helicopters under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) as long as they do not receive compensation.

- Minimum age: 17 years of age

- Category of medical certificate required: 1 or 3

- TC exam: PPHEL

- Study and reference guide: TP 2476

- Mandatory subjects:

• Air law (air law and procedures)
• Navigation (navigation and radio aids)
• Meteorology
• Aeronautics - general knowledge (airframes, engines, and systems, theory of flight, flight instruments, flight operations, human factors)

- Type of exam: 100 multiple-choice questions

- Time allotted: 3 hours

- Pass mark: 60% (with a minimum of 60% in each mandatory subject)

- Rewrite of partial exam (exam — number of questions — time allotted — pass mark) :

• Air law (PHLAW) — 20 questions — 1 hour — 60%
• Navigation (PHNAV) — 25 questions — 2 hours — 60%
• Meteorology (PHMET) — 25 questions — 1 hour 30 minutes — 60%
• Aeronautics — general knowledge (PHGEN) — 35 questions — 1 hour 30 minutes — 60%

The holder of a Private Pilot Licence may fly helicopters under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) as long as they do not receive compensation.

The flight time requirement to obtain a Private Pilot Licence - Helicopter (PPL-H) is 45 hours of flight training in helicopters under the direction and supervision of an instructor, including:

- 17 hours of dual flight time, including a minimum of 3 hours of cross-country flight time and 5 hours of instrument time

- 12 hours of solo flight time, including 5 hours of cross-country flight time with a flight of at least 100 NM, which must include 2 full-stop landings at points other than the point of departure

The CPL-A is the Commercial Pilot Licence - Aeroplane. Its holder may, by day or night, fly non-high-performance aeroplanes under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) (including VFR OTT) for hire or reward while employed by the holder of an air operator certificate.

The holder of a Commercial Pilot Licence may, by day or night, fly non-high-performance aeroplanes under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) (including VFR OTT) for hire or reward while employed by the holder of an air operator certificate.

The flight time requirement to obtain a Commercial Pilot Licence - Aeroplane (CPL-A) is:

- 200 hours of flight time in aeroplanes, of which a minimum of 100 hours must be pilot-in-command time, including 20 hours cross-country

- Following the issuance of the PPL-A, 65 hours of flight training consisting of a minimum of:

• 35 hours with an instructor (including 5 hours by night, in which a minimum of 2 hours must be cross-country, plus 5 hours cross-country and 20 hours of instrument flight time)
• 30 hours solo (including a cross-country flight to a point of a minimum 300 NM radius from the point of departure, which in turn includes a minimum of 3 landings at points other than the point of departure and 5 hours by night during which a minimum of 10 takeoffs, circuits and landings were completed)

Note: Applicants who are graduates from an integrated course must meet the requirements of CARs 426.75.

The CPL-H is the Commercial Pilot Licence - Helicopter. Its holder may fly helicopters under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) for hire or reward while employed by the holder of an air operator certificate.

The holder of a Commercial Pilot Licence may fly helicopters under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) for hire or reward while employed by the holder of an air operator certificate.

The flight time requirement to obtain a Commercial Pilot Licence - Helicopter (CPL-H) is 100 hours of flight time in helicopters, of which a minimum of 35 hours must be pilot-in-command time, including 10 hours cross-country.

- If the applicant holds a PPL-H:

Following the issuance of the PPL-H, 60 hours of flight training consisting of a minimum of:

• 37 hours with an instructor (including 5 hours by night, which in turn includes a minimum of 2 hours of cross-country, plus 5 hours of cross-country and 10 hours of instrument flight time [5 hours can be deducted from the PPL-H training])
• 23 hours solo (including a cross-country flight of 2 hours to a point a minimum of 45 minutes from the point of departure that includes a minimum of 3 landings at points other than the point of departure, and including 5 hours by night during which a minimum of 10 takeoffs, circuits and landings were completed)

- If the applicant does not hold a PPL-H:

100 hours of flight training consisting of a minimum of:

• 55 hours with an instructor (including 5 hours of cross-country and 10 hours of instrument flight time)
• 35 hours solo (including a cross-country flight to a point a minimum of 2 hours from the point of departure that includes a minimum of 3 landings at points other than the point of departure)

Note: The licence will be issued restricted to daylight flying only.

The holder of a licence endorsed with an Instrument Rating may fly VFR Over-the-Top (VFR OTT), as well as in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) in accordance with the instrument flight rules (IFR).

The holder of a licence endorsed with an Instrument Rating may fly VFR Over-the-Top (VFR OTT) and in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) in accordance with the instrument flight rules (IFR).

The flight time requirement to obtain an Instrument Rating is:

- 50 hours of cross-country flight as pilot-in-command

- 40 hours of instrument time (a maximum of 20 hours may be instrument ground time) including:

• 5 hours of dual instrument flight time with an instructor
• 5 hours in aeroplanes for a Group 1, 2 or 3 rating, or in helicopters for a Group 4 rating
• 15 hours of dual instrument flight time provided by a qualified person (see CARs 425.21(9))
• One dual cross-country flight under simulated or actual IMC conditions of a minimum of 100 NM; the flight is to be conducted in accordance with an IFR flight plan to include, at two different locations, an instrument approach to minima

The Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating allows its holder to conduct dual flight instruction leading to the issuance of a pilot permit, a pilot licence, a Night Rating or a VFR OTT rating while under the supervision of a Class 1 or 2 flight instructor.

- Minimum age: 18 years of age

- Category of medical certificate required: 1

- TC exam: AIRAF

- Study and reference guide: TP 15219

- Required knowledges:

• Practical application of the basic principles of learning and instruction techniques
• Preparation and use of lesson plans
• Procedures for planning and presenting preparatory ground instruction, pre-flight briefings, in-flight instruction and post-flight debriefings
• Theory of flight required to teach the air exercises
• Aircraft flight manuals and aircraft operating limits
• Presentation of pilot decision-making concepts
• Use of the Transport Canada Flight Instructor Guide, Flight Training Manual, the Canadian Aviation Regulations, Part IV and the appropriate flight test schedules and guides

- Type of exam: 100 multiple-choice questions

- Time allotted: 3 hours

- Pass mark: 70%

The holder of a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating may conduct dual flight instruction leading to the issuance of a pilot permit, a pilot licence, a Night Rating or a VFR OTT rating while under the supervision of a Class 1 or 2 flight instructor.

Prerequisites

- Before commencing flight training for the Class 4 Instructor Rating - Aeroplane, an applicant must hold a Commercial or Airline Transport Pilot Licence - Aeroplane and have completed either:

• A minimum of 200 hours of total time, including 20 hours of instrument time, of which a minimum of 10 hours have been instrument flight time; or
• The Commercial Pilot Licence - Aeroplane/Instrument Rating (CPL(A)/IR) integrated course

- Before commencing ground school instruction for the Class 4 Instructor Rating - Aeroplane, an applicant must have successfully completed the written exam and flight test for the Commercial Pilot Licence - Aeroplane.

Experience

The flight time requirement to obtain a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane is 30 hours of dual flight instruction (received on aeroplanes) on overall pilot proficiency and the presentation of all exercises set forth in the Flight Instructor Guide and must include a minimum of 5 hours of training in the teaching of instrument flight skills. A maximum of 5 of the 30 hours may be conducted on an approved aeroplane simulator or flight training device.

The Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating allows its holder to exercise the privileges of a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating without the need for supervision and to act as chief flight instructor of a flight training unit where there is no other flight instructor for the flight training unit. A Class 3 flight instructor may also teach as a freelance instructor. 

- Minimum age: 18 years of age

- Category of medical certificate required: 1

- TC exam: No exam

The holder of a Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating may exercise the privileges of a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating without the need for supervision and act as chief flight instructor of a flight training unit where there is no other flight instructor for the flight training unit. A Class 3 flight instructor may also teach as a freelance instructor.

Prerequisites

- An applicant for an initial Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane must hold a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane and meet the following knowledge, experience and skill requirements.

- Providing that the additional knowledge, experience and skill requirements specified below are met, the requirement to hold a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane does not apply to:

• A Canadian Forces Flight Instructor - Aeroplanes, or
• The holder of a Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane issued by a contracting state

Experience

The flight time requirement to obtain a Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane is 100 hours of dual flight instruction in aeroplanes for the issuance of a pilot licence.

Note: A Canadian Forces Flight Instructor - Aeroplanes or the holder of a Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane issued by a contracting state must be deemed to have met the requirements above.

The Class 2 Flight Instructor Rating allows its holder to exercise the privileges of a Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating, supervise the holder of a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating and act as chief flight instructor of a flight training unit.

- Minimum age: 18 years of age

- Category of medical certificate required: 1

- TC exam: AIRAT

- Study and reference guide: TP 15219

- Required knowledges:

• Practical application of the basic principles of learning and techniques of instruction
• Preparation and use of lesson plans
• Procedures for planning and presenting preparatory ground instruction, pre-flight briefings, in-flight instruction and post-flight debriefings
• Theory of flight required to teach the air exercises
• Aircraft flight manuals and aircraft operating limits
• Presentation of pilot decision-making concepts
• Use of the Transport Canada Flight Instructor Guide, Flight Training Manual, the Canadian Aviation Regulations, Part IV and the appropriate flight test schedules and guides
• Administrative procedures related to the function of chief flight instructor

- Type of exam: 100 multiple-choice questions

- Time allotted: 3 hours

- Pass mark: 70%

The holder of a Class 2 Flight Instructor Rating may exercise the privileges of a Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating, supervise the holder of a Class 4 Flight Instructor Rating and act as chief flight instructor of a flight training unit.

Prerequisites

An applicant for an initial class 2 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane must have held a Class 3 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane during the previous 12-month period and meet the following knowledge, experience and skill requirements.

Experience

The flight time requirement to obtain a Class 2 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane is 500 hours of flight instructor experience in aeroplanes, including:

- 400 hours of dual flight instruction for the issuance of a civil pilot licence or to military wings standards

- Recommendation of no fewer than 10 applicants for the recreational, private and/or commercial flight test, of which a maximum of 3 may be for the recreational flight test (5 of the 10 recommendations for the private or commercial flight test referred to in paragraph 3(b) will be considered as met in the case of an applicant who holds or has held a Canadian Forces Qualified Flying Instructor (QFI) Category A1 or A2 valid for training on single-engine aeroplanes)

The Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating allows its holder to exercise the privileges of a Class 2 Flight Instructor Rating and conduct ground school instruction and flight training leading to the endorsement of a Flight Instructor Rating.

- Minimum age: 18 years of age

- Category of medical certificate required: 1

- TC exam: AIRAT

- Study and reference guide: TP 15219

- Required knowledges:

• Practical application of the basic principles of learning and techniques of instruction
• Preparation and use of lesson plans
• Procedures for planning and presenting preparatory ground instruction, pre-flight briefings, in-flight instruction and post-flight debriefings
• Theory of flight required to teach the air exercises
• Aircraft flight manuals and aircraft operating limits
• Presentation of pilot decision-making concepts
• Use of the Transport Canada Flight Instructor Guide, Flight Training Manual, the Canadian Aviation Regulations, Part IV and the appropriate flight test schedules and guides
• Administrative procedures related to the function of chief flight instructor
• Transmission of knowledge

- Type of exam: 100 multiple-choice questions

- Time allotted: 3 hours

- Pass mark: 80%

The holder of a Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating may exercise the privileges of a Class 2 Flight Instructor Rating, and conduct ground school instruction and flight training in respect of the endorsement of a Flight Instructor Rating.

Prerequisites

An applicant for an initial Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane shall have held a class 2 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane during the previous 12 month period and meet the following knowledge, experience and skill requirements.

Experience

The flight time requirement to obtain a Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane is 750 hours of flight instruction in aeroplanes, including:

- 600 hours of dual flight instruction for the issuance of a civil pilot licence or to military wings standards

- Recommendation of no fewer than 10 applicants for the recreational, private and/or commercial flight test, of which a maximum of 3 may be for the recreational flight test

The Flight Instructor Rating - Aerobatic allows its holder to conduct flight instruction in the performance of aerobatic manoeuvres.

The holder of a Flight Instructor Rating - Aerobatic may conduct flight instruction in the performance of aerobatic manoeuvres.

Prerequisites — Class 2

Before commencing training for a Class 2 Aerobatic Instructor Rating, applicants must:

- Hold a Commercial or Airline Transport Pilot Licence - Aeroplane, and

- Provide a personal log with certification from the holder of a Class 1 or Class 2 Aerobatic Instructor rating that the applicant is competent to perform aerobatic manoeuvres.

Experience — Class 2

The flight time requirement to obtain a Class 2 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane - Aerobatic is 10 hours of dual flight instruction on the teaching of aerobatic manoeuvres, including:

• Aerobatic spin entry and recovery (minimum 1 turn)
• Loop
• Barrel roll
• Slow roll
• Snap roll
• Hammerhead turn
• Combination manoeuvres

Prerequisites — Class 1

Applicants for a Class 1 Aerobatic Instructor Rating must:

- Hold, or have held during the preceding 12-month period, a Class 2 Aerobatic Instructor Rating - Aeroplane

- Where the prerequisite specified above has not been met, the applicant must:

• Hold, or have held within the previous 12 months, a Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane or Helicopter
• Provide a letter certifying that the applicant is competent to perform the aerobatic manoeuvres specified in the Experience section of the Class 2 Aerobatic Rating

Experience — Class 1

The flight time requirement to obtain a Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating - Aeroplane - Aerobatic is 50 hours of aerobatic instructing experience, or holding a Class 1 Flight Instructor Rating and providing a letter certifying that the applicant is competent to perform the aerobatic manoeuvres of the Class 2 Aerobatic Rating.

The Type Rating for Two Crew Aeroplane or Cruise Relief Pilot allows its holder to act as a co-pilot in an aircraft requiring a crew of at least two pilots or as a cruise relief pilot.

The holder of a Type Rating for Two Crew Aeroplane or Cruise Relief Pilot may act as a co-pilot in an aircraft requiring a crew of at least two pilots or as a cruise relief pilot.

The requirement to obtain a Type Rating for Two Crew Aeroplane or Cruise Relief Pilot (IATRA) is:

- Completion of flight training on the aeroplane type

- 250 hours of pilot flight time on aeroplanes

The Airline Transport Pilot Licence allows its holder to act as pilot-in-command or co-pilot of an aeroplane for which a minimum flight crew of two pilots is required while engaged in providing a commercial air service.

The holder of an Airline Transport Pilot Licence may act as pilot-in-command or co-pilot of an aeroplane for which a minimum flight crew of two pilots is required while engaged in providing a commercial air service.

An applicant for the Airline Transport Pilot Licence - Aeroplane (ATPL-A) must have a CPL-A (not restricted to daylight flying) and have completed 1500 hours of total flight time (of which a minimum of 900 hours must have been completed in aeroplanes), including:

- 250 hours as pilot-in-command in aeroplanes, including 100 hours cross-country (of which a minimum of 25 hours have been by night)

- 100 hours by night (of which a minimum of 30 hours have been acquired in aeroplanes)

- 100 additional hours of cross-country flight time as pilot-in-command or 200 hours as copilot or any combination thereof (flight time as pilot-in-command may be part of the 250 hours of pilot-in-command flight time)

- 75 hours of instrument flight time (of which a maximum of 25 hours may have been acquired on instrument ground trainers and 35 hours may have been acquired in helicopters)

The FAAAA exam converts a United States FAA Airline Transport Pilot Certificate (Aeroplane) into a Canadian Airline Transport Pilot Licence.

- Minimum age: 21 years of age

- Category of medical certificate required: 1

- TC exam: FAAAA

- Study and reference guide: TP 690

- Mandatory subject:

• Air law and procedures

- Type of exam: 25 multiple-choice questions

- Time allotted: 1 hour 30 minutes

- Pass mark: 70%

In order to become a flight dispatcher, you will have to pass two separate Transport Canada exams: the FD OPS and the FD MET.